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LATIN FOR BEGINNERS

BY

BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR IN THE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE

GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON

COPYRIGHT, 1909, 1911 BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
013.4

The Athenæum Press
GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS ·
BOSTON · U.S.A.

PREFACE

To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons.

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.

Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.

Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.

Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.

It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers:

The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions.

The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge's "Dictionary of Secondary Latin" and Browne's "Latin Word List" as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar.

The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together.

Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course.

Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar's army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.

Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar.

The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times.

A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout.

As an aid to teachers using this book a "Teacher's Manual" has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE
Michigan State Normal College

CONTENTS

LATIN FOR BEGINNERS

TO THE STUDENT—BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

What is Latin? If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,¹ and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

1. Pronounce Lâ´shi-um.

The Spread of Latin. For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome's power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.

The Romans and the Greeks. In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks—poets, artists, orators, and philosophers—flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.

Rome and the Modern World. After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.

Latin and English. Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French—which, you remember, is descended from Latin—and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.

Why study Latin? The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

Review Questions. Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome's power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin?

PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

THE ALPHABET

1. The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j.

2. The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are consonants.

3. I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant.

Thus in Iû-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS¹

1. N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.

4. Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.

5. The vowels have the following sounds:

2. Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones [)].
{Transcriber's Addendum: Short vowels are not marked in this version of the text.}

Note. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality.

6. In diphthongs (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.

Note. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

7. Consonants are pronounced as in English, except that

a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap, not as in rattle; pp as in hop-pole, not as in upper. Examples, mit´-tô, Ap´pi-us, bel´-lum.

SYLLABLES

8. A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus aes-tâ´-te has three syllables, au-di-en´-dus has four.

a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English inside with Latin în-sî´-de.

9. Words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus a-mâ´-bi-lis, me-mo´-ri-a, in-te´-re-â, a´-best, pe-rê´-git.3

3. In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as inter-eâ, ab-est, sub-âctus, per-êgit, contrary to the correct phonetic rule.

2. Combinations of two or more consonants:

a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r. Thus pû´-bli-cus, a´-grî.

Exception. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr, follow rule b. Thus ab´-lu-ô, ab-rum´-pô, il´-le, fer´-rum.

b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.⁴ Thus mag´-nus, e-ges´-tâs, vic-tô´-ri-a, hos´-pes, an´-nus, su-bâc´-tus.

4. The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fûnc-tus, sânc-tus.

3. The last syllable of a word is called the ul´-ti-ma; the one next to the last, the pe-nult´; the one before the penult, the an´-te-pe-nult´.

10. EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated:

Vâ´de ad formî´cam, Ô pi´ger, et cônsî´derâ vi´âs e´ius et di´sce sapie´ntiam: quae cum nôn ha´beat du´cem nec praeceptô´rem nec prî´ncipem, pa´rat in aestâ´te ci´bum si´bi et co´ngregat in me´sse quod co´medat.

[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]

QUANTITY

11. The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.

12. Quantity of Vowels. Vowels are either long (¯) or short. In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.

1. A vowel is short before another vowel or h; as po-ê´-ta, tra´-hô.

2. A vowel is short before nt and nd, before final m or t, and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r. Thus a´-mant, a-man´-dus, a-mâ´-bam, a-mâ´-bat, a´-ni-mal, a´-mor.

3. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and nct. Thus în´-fe-rô, re´-gêns, sân´-xî, sânc´-tus.

4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

13. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

1. A syllable is short,

a. If it ends in a short vowel; as a´-mô, pi´-gri.

Note. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word me-mo´-ri-am contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

2. A syllable is long,

a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as cû´-rô, poe´-nae, aes-tâ´-te.

b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as cor´-pus, mag´-nus.

Note. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in ter´-ra, in´-ter, the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like saxum the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs).

3. In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.

Note. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say cur´-rô as it does cû´-rô, and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare mol´-lis and mô´-lis, â-mis´-sî and â-mi´-sî.

ACCENT

14. Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as mên´-sa, Cae´-sar.

15. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus mo-nê´-mus, re´-gi-tur, a-gri´-co-la, a-man´-dus.

Note. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. § 13. 2, Note.)

16. Certain little words called enclit´ics5 which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are -que, and; -ve, or; and -ne, the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus populus´que, dea´que, rêgna´ve, audit´ne.

5. Enclitic means leaning back, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.

HOW TO READ LATIN

17. To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. § 15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.

18. Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [HIGHER]! 6

6. Translation by C. W. Goodchild in Praeco Latinus, October, 1898.

PART II

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

19. Subject and Predicate. 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the same purpose.

a. Pronouns, as their name implies (pro, "instead of," and noun), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; he is a sturdy fellow.

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.

a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.

20. The Object. In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The doer of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the subject. That to which something is done is the direct object of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows:

a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a transitive verb. A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called intransitive, as, I walk, he comes.

21. The Copula. The verb to be in its different forms—are, is, was, etc.—does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the copula, that is, the joiner or link.

22. In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas:

a. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, Latin has no article the or a; thus agricola may mean the farmer, a farmer, or simply farmer. Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she, etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

23. Inflection. Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer's; woman, women. This is called inflection. The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its declension, that of a verb its conjugation.

24. Number. Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

25. Rule. Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the plural.

26. Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

1. The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as causa, cause, no comparison is needed.

27. Compare again the sentences

In the first sentence the verb pugna-t is in the third person singular, in the second sentence pugna-nt is in the third person plural.

28. Rule. Agreement of Verb. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

29. Rule. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt. The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called personal endings.

30. Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb's subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus nauta pugnat is translated the sailor fights, not the sailor he fights.

2. The u in nûntiô is long by exception. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

31. EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fîlia labôrat, fîliae labôrant. 5. Nauta nûntiat, nautae nûntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.

[Illustration: seated lady
Caption: DOMINA]

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

32. Declension of Nouns. We learned above (§§ 19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence The lady her daughter loves might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences:

a. Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in -a and the object in -am. The form of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.

2. As stated above (§ 23), this change of ending is called declension, and each different ending produces what is called a case. When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,—nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding 's or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, who? whose? whom?

33. The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in -a, observe that

a. The nominative plural ends in -ae.

b. The genitive singular ends in -ae and the genitive plural in -ârum.

c. The accusative singular ends in -am and the accusative plural in -âs.

d. The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending.

34. EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvâs, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrârum, terrae, terrâs. 4. Aquâs, causam, lûnâs. 5. Fîliae, fortûnae, lûnae. 6. Iniûriâs, agricolârum, aquârum. 7. Iniûriârum, agricolae, puellâs. 8. Nautam, agricolâs, nautâs. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvârum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

35. We learned from the table (§ 33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

Fîlia agricolae nautam amat,
the farmer's daughter (or the daughter of the farmer) loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

36. Rule. Nominative Subject. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?

37. Rule. Accusative Object. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?

38. Rule. Genitive of the Possessor. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?

[Illustration: Diana shoots an arrow at a bear
Caption: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT]

39. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diâna est dea. 2. Lâtôna est dea. 3. Diâna et Lâtôna sunt deae. 4. Diâna est dea lûnae. 5. Diâna est fîlia Lâtônae. 6. Lâtôna Diânam amat. 7. Diâna est dea silvârum. 8. Diâna silvam amat. 9. Diâna sagittâs portat. 10. Diâna ferâs silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrârum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona's daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers' daughters do labor. 4. The farmer's daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls' flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors' wrongs. 7. The farmer's daughter labors. 8. Diana's arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

40. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1. Quis est Diâna?
2. Cuius fîlia est Diâna?
3. Quis Diânam amat?
4. Quis silvam amat?
5. Quis sagittâs portat?
6. Cuius fîliae labôrant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

41. The Dative Case. In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as from, with, by, to, for, in, at.1

1. Words like to, for, by, from, in, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called prepositions.

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the dative.

42. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the dative singular ends in -ae and the dative plural in -îs.

Note. Observe that the genitive singular, the dative singular, and the nominative plural all have the same ending, -ae; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

a. Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortûna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

43. The Dative Relation. The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions to, towards, for.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as She went to town, He ran towards the horse, Columbus sailed for America. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as motion through space is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that to or towards which a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that for which something serves or exists.

a. What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions—a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

44. The Indirect Object. Examine the sentence

Nauta fugam nûntiat, the sailor announces the flight

Here the verb, nûntiat, governs the direct object, fugam, in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons to whom the sailor announces the flight, as, The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, the verb will have two objects:

1. Its direct object, flight (fugam)
2. Its indirect object, farmers

According to the preceding section, to the farmers is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

45. Rule. Dative Indirect Object. The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative.

a. The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

46. We may now complete the translation of the sentence The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, and we have

Nauta agricolîs fugam nûntiat

47. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor.

I. 1. Quis nautîs pecûniam dat? 2. Fîliae agricolae nautîs pecûniam dant. 3. Quis fortûnam pugnae nûntiat? 4. Galba agricolîs fortunam pugnae nûntiat. 5. Cui domina fâbulam nârrat? 6. Fîliae agricolae domina fâbulam nârrat. 7. Quis Diânae corônam dat? 8. Puella Diânae corônam dat quia Diânam amat. 9. Dea lûnae sagittâs portat et ferâs silvârum necat. 10. Cuius victôriam Galba nûntiat? 11. Nautae victôriam Galba nûntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies² a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§ 22. a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana's.

2. Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition to to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

48. The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.

49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -â and the ablative plural in -îs.

a. Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the final -â of the ablative is long, as,

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortûna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

50. The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived—generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done—translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens—translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o'clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they study Latin with great zeal. In a short time they will be able to read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

51. Prepositions. While, as stated above (§ 41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

52. Rule. Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

â¹ or ab, from, away from
dê, from, down from
ê¹ or ex, from, out from, out of
cum, with
in, in, on

1. â and ê are used only before words beginning with a consonant; ab and ex are used before either vowels or consonants.

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

54. Adjectives. Examine the sentence

Puella parva bonam deam amat, the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva (little) and bonam (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,2 and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

2. Pick out the adjectives in the following: "When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter's morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 'My pretty boy,' said he, 'has your father a grindstone?' 'Yes, sir,' said I. 'You are a fine little fellow,' said he. 'Will you let me grind my ax on it?'"

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of parva shows that it belongs to puella, and the ending of bonam that it belongs to deam. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

55. Examine the sentences

Puella est parva, the girl is little
Puella parva bonam deam amat, the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives parva and bonam are closely attached to the nouns puella and deam respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

56. DIALOGUE

Julia and Galba

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. Quis, Galba, est Diâna?
G. Diâna, Iûlia, est pulchra dea lûnae et silvârum.
I. Cuius fîlia, Galba, est Diâna?
G. Lâtônae fîlia, Iûlia, est Diâna.
I. Quid Diâna portat?
G. Sagittâs Diâna portat.
I. Cûr Diâna sagittâs portat?
G. Diâna sagittâs portat, Iûlia, quod malâs ferâs silvae magnae necat.
I. Amatne Lâtôna fîliam?
G. Amat, et fîlia Lâtônam amat.
I. Quid fîlia tua parva portat?
G. Corônâs pulchrâs fîlia mea parva portat.
I. Cui fîlia tua corônâs pulchrâs dat?
G. Diânae corônâs dat.
I. Quis est cum fîliâ tuâ? Estne sôla?
G. Sôla nôn est; fîlia mea parva est cum ancillâ meâ.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocâre, "to call"). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta? you would say Pugnat, he is fighting, or Nôn pugnat, he is not fighting.

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR Â-DECLENSION

57. In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a. All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Â-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel a plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

58. The Base. That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base.

Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the termination of the nominative singular.

59. Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

pugna, terra, lûna, ancil´la, corô´na, în´sula, silva

60. Gender. In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called natural gender. Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, "Have you seen my yacht? She is a beauty." And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, "Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken it home." Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called grammatical gender.

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Thus we have in Latin the three words, lapis, a stone; rûpês, a cliff; and saxum, a rock. Lapis is masculine, rûpês feminine, and saxum neuter. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

61. Gender of First-Declension Nouns. Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus silva is feminine, but nauta, sailor, and agricola, farmer, are masculine.

62. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum fîliâ in casâ habitat. 2. Bona fîlia agricolae cênam parat. 3. Cêna est grâta agricolae¹ et agricola bonam fîliam laudat. 4. Deinde fîlia agricolae gallînâs ad cênam vocat. 5. Gallînae fîliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fîliae bonâs cênâs nôn parant. 7. Fîlia agricolae est grâta dominae. 8. Domina in însulâ magnâ habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecûniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting (parat) a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter's good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

1. Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that to which a feeling is directed. (Cf. § 43.)

[Illustration: In front of a farmhouse: daughter feeding chickens, father holding a bowl, mother standing"]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

63. CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1. Quis cum agricolâ in casâ habitat?
2. Quid bona fîlia agricolae parat?
3. Quem agricola laudat?
4. Vocatne fîlia agricolae gallînâs ad cênam?
5. Cuius fîlia est grâta dominae?
6. Cui domina pecûniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (Continued)

64. We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§ 54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase silva magna, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.

65. Rule. Agreement of Adjectives. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

66. Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

a. In the same way decline together puella mala, the bad girl; ancil´la parva, the little maid; fortû´na magna, great fortune.

67. The words dea, goddess, and fîlia, daughter, take the ending -âbus instead of -îs in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

a. In the same way decline together fîlîa parva.

68. Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. § 32. 1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order)
Last November I saw a game of football at Chicago
At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of football

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words—that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed—is as follows:

subject—modifiers of the subject—indirect object—direct object—adverb—verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as fîlia mea, my daughter; mea fîlia, my daughter; casa Galbae, Galba's cottage; Galbae casa, Galba's cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

Fîlia mea agricolîs cênam parat (normal order)
Mea fîlia agricolîs parat cênam (mea and cênam emphatic)
Agricolîs fîlia mea cênam parat (agricolîs emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

Fîlia mea casam parvam nôn amat (parvam not emphatic)
Fîlia mea parvam casam nôn amat (parvam more emphatic)
Parvam fîlia mea casam nôn amat (parvam very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as est, sunt) is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.

69. EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic.

1. Longae nôn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meâ casâ? Nôn sunt. 3. Quis lâtâ in silvâ habitat? Diâna, lûnae clârae pulchra dea, lâtâ in silvâ habitat. 4. Nautae altâs et lâtâs amant aquâs. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iûlia? In tuâ casa est Lesbia et Iûlia est in meâ. 7. Estne Italia lâta terra? Longa est Italia, nôn lâta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fâbulam novam nârrat? Fîliâbus dominae clârae fâbulam novam nârrat. 9. Clâra est însula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lâtôna? Lâtôna laudat fîliam.

First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§ 502-505

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION

70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -î.

72. Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows:

1. Compare the declension of domina and of dominus.

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -e, as domine, O master; serve, O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in § 56. a.

74. Write side by side the declension of domina, dominus, and pîlum. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see § 73. b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a.

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s.

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

75. Observe the sentences

Lesbia est bona, Lesbia is good
Lesbia est ancilla, Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§ 55) that bona, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as ancilla, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun.

76. Rule. Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

[Illustration: spears
Caption: PILA]

77. DIALOGUE

[Illustration: officer with spear and trumpet
Caption: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA

Galba and Marcus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

G. Quis, Mârce, est lêgâtus cum pîlô et tubâ?
M. Lêgâtus, Galba, est Sextus.
G. Ubi Sextus habitat?2
M. In oppidô Sextus cum fîliâbus habitat.
G. Amantne oppidânî Sextum?
M. Amant oppidânî Sextum et laudant, quod magnâ cum cônstantiâ pugnat.
G. Ubi, Mârce, est ancilla tua? Cûr nôn cênam parat?
M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equô lêgâtî aquam et frûmentum dat.
G. Cûr nôn servus Sextî equum dominî cûrat?
M. Sextus et servus ad mûrum oppidî properant. Oppidânî bellum parant.³

2. habitat is here translated does live. Note the three possible translations of the Latin present tense:

Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.

3. Observe that the verb parô means not only to prepare but also to prepare for, and governs the accusative case.

78. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

1. Ubi fîliae Sextî habitant?
2. Quem oppidânî amant et laudant?
3. Quid ancilla equô lêgâtî dat?
4. Cuius equum ancilla cûrat?
5. Quis ad mûrum cum Sextô properat?
6. Quid oppidânî parant?

LESSON X

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

79. We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like bona, in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. Masculine adjectives of this class are declined like dominus, and neuters like pîlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

Decline together bellum longum, equus parvus, servus malus, mûrus altus, frûmentum novum.

80. Observe the sentences

Lesbia ancilla est bona, Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
Fîlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona, the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat, the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant

In these sentences ancilla, ancillae, and ancillam denote the class of persons to which Lesbia belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

81. Rule. Apposition. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.

82. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Patria servî bonî, vîcus servôrum bonôrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidî magnî, in oppidô magnô, in oppidîs magnîs. 3. Cum pîlîs longîs, ad pîla longa, ad mûrôs lâtôs. 4. Lêgâte male, amîcî legâtî malî, cêna grâta dominô bonô. 5. Frûmentum equôrum parvôrum, domine bone, ad lêgâtôs clârôs. 6. Rhênus est in Germâniâ, patriâ meâ. 7. Sextus lêgâtus pîlum longum portat. 8. Oppidânî bonî Sextô lêgâtô clârâ pecûniam dant. 9. Malî servî equum bonum Mârcî dominî necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iûlia fîlia bona labôrant. 11. Mârcus nauta in însulâ Siciliâ habitat.

II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from (ex) a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for¹ the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening¹ to the little cottage² of Julia, the farmer's daughter.

1. See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that cûrat is transitive and governs a direct object.

2. Not the dative. (Cf. § 43.)

LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

83. Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

a. Write the declension and give it orally across the page, thus giving the three genders for each case.

b. Decline grâtus, -a, -um; malus, -a, -um; altus, -a, -um; parvus, -a, -um.

84. Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does not mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, nauta, sailor, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective bonus is of the second declension. Consequently, a good sailor is nauta bonus. So, the wicked farmer is agricola malus. Learn the following declensions:

85. nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., the good sailor

86. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Est¹ in vîcô nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amîcus nautae bonî. 3. Sextus nautae bonô galeam dat. 4. Populus Rômânus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautâ bonô praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et têla lêgâtî Rômânî? 7. Nautae bonî ad bellum properant. 8. Fâma nautârum bonôrum est clâra. 9. Pugnae sunt grâtae nautîs bonîs. 10. Oppidânî nautâs bonôs cûrant. 11. Cûr, nautae bonî, malî agricolae ad Rhênum properant? 12. Malî agricolae cum bonîs nautîs pugnant.

II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba's daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers?

1. Est, beginning a declarative sentence, there is.

[Illustration: helmets
Caption: GALEAE]

LESSON XII

NOUNS IN -IUS AND -IUM

87. Nouns of the second declension in -ius and -ium end in -î in the genitive singular, not in -iî, and the accent rests on the penult; as, fîlî from fîlius (son), praesi´dî from praesi´dium (garrison).

88. Proper names of persons in -ius, and fîlius, end in -î in the vocative singular, not in -e, and the accent rests on the penult; as, Vergi´lî, O Vergil; fîlî, O son.

a. Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike.

89. praesidium (base praesidi-), n., garrison fîlius (base fîli-), m., son

The plural is regular. Note that the -i- of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like fîlius.

Decline together praesidium parvum; fîlius bonus; fluvius longus, the long river; proelium clârum, the famous battle.

90. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Frûmentum bonae terrae, gladî malî, bellî longî. 2. Cônstantia magna, praesidia magna, clâre Vergi´lî. 3. Male serve, Ô clârum oppidum, male fîlî, fîliî malî, fîlî malî. 4. Fluvî longî, fluviî longî, fluviôrum longôrum, fâma praesi´dî magnî. 5. Cum gladiîs parvîs, cum deâbus clârîs, ad nautâs clârôs. 6. Multôrum proeliôrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dûra.

Germânia

II. Germânia, patria Germânôrum, est clâra terra. In Germâniâ sunt fluviî multî. Rhênus magnus et lâtus fluvius Germâniae est. In silvîs lâtîs Germâniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germânii in oppidîs magnis et in vîcîs parvîs habitant et multî sunt agricolae bonî. Bella Germânôrum sunt magna et clâra. Populus Germâniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimîs pugnat. Fluvius Rhênus est fînitimus oppidîs¹ multîs et clârîs.

1. Dative with fînitimus. (See § 43.)

LESSON XIII

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

91. Declension of Nouns in -er and -ir. In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in -os. This -os later became -us in words like servus, and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in -r, like puer, boy; ager, field; and vir, man. These words are therefore declined as follows:

92. puer, m., boy ager, m., field vir, m., man

a. The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§ 74. a).

b. The declension differs from that of servus only in the nominative and vocative singular.

c. Note that in puer the e remains all the way through, while in ager it is present only in the nominative. In puer the e belongs to the base, but in ager (base agr-) it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in -er are declined like ager. The genitive shows whether you are to follow puer or ager.

93. Masculine adjectives in -er of the second declension are declined like nouns in -er. A few of them are declined like puer, but most of them like ager. The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

For the full declension in the three genders, see § 469. b. c.

94. Decline together the words vir lîber, terra lîbera, frûmentum lîberum, puer pulcher, puella pulchra, oppidum pulchrum

95. Italia¹

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fâma, patriae Rômânôrum, et clâra est Rôma, domina orbis terrârum.² Tiberim,³ fluvium Rômânum, quis nôn laudat et pulchrôs fluviô fînitimôs agrôs? Altôs mûrôs, longa et dûra bella, clârâs victôriâs quis nôn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrî bonî agricolîs praemia dant magna, et equî agricolârum côpiam frûmentî ad oppida et vîcôs portant. In agrîs populî Rômânî labôrant multî servî. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lâtae. Fînitima Italiae est însula Sicilia.

1. In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.

2. orbis terrârum, of the world.

3. Tiberim, the Tiber, accusative case.

96. DIALOGUE

Marcus and Cornelius

[Illustration: legionary
Caption: LEGIONARIUS]

C. Ubi est, Mârce, fîlius tuus? Estne in pulchrâ terrâ Italiâ?
M. Nôn est, Cornêlî, in Italiâ. Ad fluvium Rhênum properat cum côpiîs Rômânîs quia est⁴ fâma Novî bellî cum Germânîs. Lîber Germâniae populus Rômânôs Nôn amat.
C. Estne fîlius tuus copiârum Rômânârum lêgâtus?
M. Lêgâtus nôn est, sed est apud legiônâriôs.
C. Quae⁵ arma portat⁶?
M. Scûtum magnum et lôrîcam dûram et galeam pulchram portat.
C. Quae têla portat?
M. Gladium et pîlum longum portat.
C. Amatne lêgâtus fîlium tuum?
M. Amat, et saepe fîliô meô praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat.
C. Ubi est terra Germânôrum?
M. Terra Germânôrum, Cornêlî est fînitima Rhênô, fluviô magnô et altô.

4. est, before its subject, there is; so sunt, there are.

5. Quae, what kind of, an interrogative adjective pronoun.

6. What are the three possible translations of the present tense?

LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

97. Observe the sentences

This is my shield
This shield is mine

In the first sentence my is a possessive adjective; in the second mine is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, this shield is mine being equivalent to this shield is my shield. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes adjectives and sometimes pronouns.

98. The possessives my, mine, your, yours, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

Note. Meus has the irregular vocative singular masculine mî, as mî fîlî, O my son.

a. The possessives agree with the name of the thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in

Observe that suum agrees with puerum, and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia.

b. When your, yours, refers to one person, use tuus; when to more than one, vester; as,

c. Suus is a reflexive possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the subject. Thus, Vir suôs servôs vocat means The man calls his (own) slaves. Here his (suôs) refers to man (vir), and could not refer to any one else.

d. Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. § 22. a.) This is especially true of suus, -a, -um, which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our his own, her own, etc.

99. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. 1. Mârcus amîcô Sextô cônsilium suum nûntiat 2. Est côpia frûmentî in agrîs nostrîs. 3. Amîcî meî bonam cênam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lôrîca, mî fîlî, est dûra. 5. Scûta nostra et têla, mî amîce, in castrls Rômânîs sunt. 6. Suntne virî patriae tuae lîberî? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornêlî, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casâ meâ. 9. Pîlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iûlia gallînâs suâs pulchrâs amat et gallînae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est côpia praedae in castrîs vestrîs. 13. Amîcî tuî miserîs et aegrîs cibum et pecûniam saepe dant.

II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark's industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.¹ 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.² 4. There are 3 frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant's food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours.

1. Not the dative. Why?

2. Here the adjectives sick and wretched are used like nouns.

3. Where should sunt stand? Cf. I. 2 above.

[Illustration: a farmer plowing with oxen
Caption: AGRICOLA ARAT]

LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH

100. Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§ 50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition with. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by cum. This will become clear from the following sentences:

a. Mark is feeble with (for or because of) want of food
b. Diana kills the beasts with (or by) her arrows
c. Julia is with Sextus
d. The men fight with great steadiness

a. In sentence a, with want (of food) gives the cause of Mark's feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of cause:

Mârcus est înfîrmus inopiâ cibî

b. In sentence b, with (or by) her arrows tells by means of what Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of means:

Diâna sagittîs suîs ferâs necat

c. In sentence c we are told that Julia is not alone, but in company with Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition cum, and the construction is called the ablative of accompaniment:

Iûlia est cum Sextô

d. In sentence d we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of manner. This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with cum, unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case cum may be omitted. This construction is called the ablative of manner:

Virî (cum) cônstantiâ magnâ pugnant

101. You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting with:

102. Rule. Ablative of Cause. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?

103. Rule. Ablative of Means. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?

N.B. Cum must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

104. Rule. Ablative of Accompaniment. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with cum. This answers the question With whom?

105. Rule. Ablative of Manner. The ablative with cum is used to denote the manner of an action. Cum may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?

106. What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (or by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

107. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. The Romans prepare for War. Rômânî, clârus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrîs suîs, vicîs, oppidîsque magnô studiô virî validî ad arma properant. Iam lêgatî cum legiônariîs ex Italiâ ad Rhênum, fluvium Germâniae altum et lâtum, properant, et servî equîs et carrîs cibum frûmentumque ad castra Rômâna portant. Inopiâ bonôrum têlôrum înfirmî sunt Germânî, sed Rômânî armâti galeîs, lôrîcîs, scûtîs, gladiîs, pîlîsque sunt validî.

II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba's cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons.

LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

108. There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders:

Otherwise they are declined like bonus, -a, -um. Learn the list and the meaning of each:

alius, alia, aliud, other, another (of several)
alter, altera, alterum, the one, the other (of two)
ûnus, -a, -um, one, alone; (in the plural) only
ûllus, -a, -um, any
nûllus, -a, -um, none, no
sôlus, -a, -um, alone
tôtus, -a, -um, all, whole, entire
uter, utra, utrum, which? (of two)
neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither (of two)

109. PARADIGMS

a. Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in -d of alius. The genitive alîus is rare. Instead of it use alterîus, the genitive of alter.

b. These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see § 114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the pronominal adjectives.

110. Learn the following idioms:

alter, -era, -erum ... alter, -era, -erum, the one ... the other (of two)
alius, -a, -ud ... alius, -a, -ud, one ... another (of any number)
aliî, -ae, -a ... aliî, -ae, -a, some ... others

EXAMPLES

1. Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum, the one town is large, the other small (of two towns).

2. Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud înfîrmum, one town is strong, another weak (of towns in general).

3. Aliî gladiôs, aliî scûta portant, some carry swords, others shields.

111. EXERCISES

I. 1. In utrâ casâ est Iûlia? Iûlia est in neutrâ casâ. 2. Nûllî malô puerô praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliî virî aquam, aliî terram amant. 5. Galba ûnus (or sôlus) cum studiô labôrat. 6. Estne ûllus carrus in agrô meô? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterîus dominî, Tullia alterîus. 8. Lesbia sôla cênam parat. 9. Cêna nûllîus alterîus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nûllî aliî virô cênam dat.

Note. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns.

II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. weak because of) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain.

LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE IS, EA, ID

112. A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as this, that, these, those. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, Do you hear these? and sometimes adjectives, as, Do you hear these men? In the former case they are called demonstrative pronouns, in the latter demonstrative adjectives.

113. Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as pronouns and as adjectives. The one used most is

is, masculine; ea, feminine; id, neuter

114. Is is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of alius, § 109.

Note that the base e- changes to i- in a few cases. The genitive singular eius is pronounced eh´yus. In the plural the forms with two i's are preferred and the two i's are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce iî as î and iîs as îs.

115. Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun he, she, it. As a personal pronoun, then, is would have the following meanings:

116. Comparison between suus and is. We learned above (§ 98. c) that suus is a reflexive possessive. When his, her (poss.), its, their, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express his, her, its by eius, the genitive singular of is, ea, id; and their by the genitive plural, using eôrum to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and eârum to refer to a feminine one.

EXAMPLES

Galba calls his (own) son, Galba suum fîlium vocat
Galba calls his son (not his own, but another's), Galba eius fîlium vocat
Julia calls her (own) children, Iûlia suôs lîberôs vocat
Julia calls her children (not her own, but another's), Iûlia eius lîberôs vocat
The men praise their (own) boys, virî suôs puerôs laudant
The men praise their boys (not their own, but others'), virî eôrum puerôs laudant

117. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans.

4. The other woman is calling her chickens (her own). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (not her own). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (his own). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (not his own). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (their own). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (not their own). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns.

118. DIALOGUE¹

Cornelius and Marcus

M. Quis est vir, Cornêlî, cum puerô parvô? Estne Rômânus et lîber?
C. Rômânus nôn est, Mârce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvîs Galliae.
M. Estne puer fîlius eius servî an alterîus?
C. Neutrîus fîlius est puer. Is est fîlius lêgâtî Sextî.
M. Quô puer cum eô servô properat?
C. Is cum servô properat ad lâtôs Sextî agrôs.² Tôtum frûmentum est iam mâtûrum et magnus servôrum numerus in Italiae³ agrîs labôrat.
M. Agricolaene sunt Gallî et patriae suae agrôs arant?
C. Nôn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallî, nôn agrî cultûram. Apud eôs virî pugnant et fêminae auxiliô lîberôrum agrôs arant parantque cibum.
M. Magister noster puerîs puellîsque grâtâs Gallôrum fâbulâs saepe nârrat et laudat eôs saepe.
C. Mala est fortûna eôrum et saepe miserî servî multîs cum lacrimîs patriam suam dêsîderant.

1. There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.

2. When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is adjective, genitive, noun.

3. A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.

Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§ 506-509

LESSON XVIII

CONJUGATION: THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF SUM

119. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (cf. § 23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in tense, mood, voice, person, and number.

120. The Tenses. The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its tenses. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future:

121. The Moods. Verbs have inflection of mood to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive.

a. A verb is in the indicative mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative.

122. The Persons. There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (I sing); the second person the person spoken to (you sing); the third person the person spoken of (he sings). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. § 22 a; 29). We have already learned that -t is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and -nt of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows:

123. Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called regular verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called irregular. The verb to be is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows:

a. Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§ 12.2; 14; 15.

1. Observe that in English you are, you were, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.

124. DIALOGUE

The Boys Sextus and Marcus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

S. Ubi es, Mârce? Ubi est Quîntus? Ubi estis, amîcî?
M. Cum Quîntô, Sexte, in silvâ sum. Nôn sôlî sumus; sunt in silvâ multî aliî puerî.
S. Nunc laetus es, sed nûper nôn laetus erâs. Cûr miser erâs?
M. Miser eram quia amîcî meî erant in aliô vicô et eram sôlus. Nunc sum apud sociôs meôs. Nunc laetî sumus et erimus.
S. Erâtisne in lûdo hodiê?
M. Hodiê nôn erâmus in lûdô, quod magister erat aeger.
S. Eritisne mox in lûdô?
M. Amîcî meî ibi erunt, sed ego (I) nôn erô.
S. Cûr nôn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irâtus, inopiam tuam studî dîligentiaeque nôn laudat.
M. Nûper aeger eram et nunc înfîrmus sum.

125. EXERCISE

1. You are, you were, you will be, (sing. and plur.). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.

6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys' industry.

[Illustration: Roman boys in school
Caption: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO]

LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS · PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMÔ AND MONEÔ

126. There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.¹ This vowel is called the distinguishing vowel, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

1. The stem is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. § 58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in § 230.

Below is given the present infinitive of a verb of each conjugation, the present stem, and the distinguishing vowel.

a. Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping -re, the ending of the present infinitive.

Note. The present infinitive of sum is esse, and es- is the present stem.

127. From the present stem are formed the present, imperfect, and future tenses.

128. The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows:

1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses -o and not -m. The form amô is for amâ-ô, the two vowels â-ô contracting to ô. In moneô there is no contraction. Nearly all regular verbs ending in -eo belong to the second conjugation.

2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel (monê-ô = mo´neô), and before final -t (amat, monet) and -nt (amant, monent). Compare § 12. 2.

129. Like amô and moneô inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs²:

2. The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.

3. Observe that in dô, dare, the a is short, and that the present stem is da- and not dâ-. The only forms of dô that have a long are dâs (pres. indic.), dâ (pres. imv.), and dâns (pres. part.).

130. The Translation of the Present. In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, I live, I am living, or I do live. In Latin the one expression habitô covers all three of these expressions.

131. EXERCISES

Give the voice, mood, tense, person, and number of each form.

I. 1. Vocâmus, properâtis, iubent. 2. Movêtis, laudâs, vidês. 3. Dêlêtis, habêtis, dant. 4. Mâtûrâs, dêsîderat, vidêmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nârrâmus, movês, vident. 7. Labôrâtis, properant, portâs, parant. 8. Dêlet, habêtis, iubêmus, dâs.

N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.

II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (sing.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.

LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMÔ AND MONEÔ

132. Tense Signs. Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like was, shall, will, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called tense signs.

133. Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect. The tense sign of the imperfect is -bâ-, which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

The inflection is as follows:

a. Note that the â of the tense sign -bâ- is shortened before -nt, and before m and t when final. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in § 129.

134. Meaning of the Imperfect. The Latin imperfect describes an act as going on or progressing in past time, like the English past-progressive tense (as, I was walking). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

135. EXERCISES

I. 1. Vidêbâmus, dêsîderâbat, mâtûrâbâs. 2. Dabant, vocâbâtis, dêlêbâmus. 3. Pugnant, laudâbâs, movêbâtis. 4. Iubêbant, properâbâtis, portâbâmus. 5. Dabâs, nârrâbant, labôrâbâtis. 6. Vidêbant, movêbâs, nûntiâbâmus. 7. Necâbat, movêbam, habêbat, parâbâtis.

II. 1. You were having (sing. and plur.), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (sing. and plur.). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising.

136. Ni´obe and her Children

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

Niobê, rêgina Thêbânôrum, erat pulchra fêmina sed superba. Erat superba nôn sôlum fôrmâ¹ suâ marîtîque potentiâ¹ sed etiam magnô lîberôrum numerô.1 Nam habêbat² septem fîliôs et septem fîliâs. Sed ea superbia erat rêgînae³ causa magnae trîstitiae et lîberîs³ causa dûrae poenae.

Note. The words Niobê, Thêbânôrum, and marîtî will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words.

1. Ablative of cause.

2. Translate had; it denotes a past situation. (See § 134.)

3. Dative, cf. § 43.

LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMÔ AND MONEÔ

137. The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is -bi-. This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows:

138. The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

a. The personal endings are as in the present. The ending -bô in the first person singular is contracted from -bi-ô. The -bi- appears as -bu- in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of erô, the future of sum. Pay especial attention to the accent.

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in § 129.

139. EXERCISES

I. 1. Movêbitis, laudâbis, arâbô. 2. Dêlêbitis, vocâbitis, dabunt. 3. Mâtûrâbis, dêsîderâbit, vidêbimus. 4. Habêbit, movêbunt, necâbit. 5. Nârrâbimus, monêbis, vidêbunt. 6. Labôrâbitis, cûrâbunt, dabis. 7. Habitâbimus, properâbitis, iubêbunt, parâbit. 8. Nûntiâbô, portâbimus, iubêbô.

II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (sing. and plur.). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (plur.). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (sing. and plur.), he will destroy.

140. Niobe and her Children (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollô et Diâna erant lîberî Lâtônae. Iîs Thêbânî sacra crêbra parâbant.¹ Oppidânî amâbant Lâtônam et lîberôs eius. Id superbae rêgînae erat molestum. "Cûr," inquit, "Lâtônae et lîberîs sacra parâtis? Duôs lîberôs habet Lâtôna; quattuordecim habeô ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?" Lâtôna iîs verbîs² îrâta lîberôs suôs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollô Diânaque et sagittîs³ suîs miserôs lîberôs rêgînae superbae dêlent. Niobê, nûper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud lîberôs interfectôs et cum perpetuîs lacrimîs⁴ eôs dêsîderat.

Note. Consult the general vocabulary for Apollô, inquit, duôs, and quattuordecim. Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

1. Observe the force of the imperfect here, used to prepare, were in the habit of preparing; so amâbant denotes a past situation of affairs. (See § 134.)

2. Ablative of cause.

3. Ablative of means.

4. This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.

LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

141. Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of sum and the verbs in § 129.

142. We learned in § 43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in § 44 that one of its commonest uses is with verbs to express the indirect object. It is also very common with adjectives to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where grâtus, agreeable to, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had molestus, annoying to, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule:

143. Rule. Dative with Adjectives. The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning near, also fit, friendly, pleasing, like, and their opposites.

144. Among such adjectives memorize the following:

idôneus, -a, -um, fit, suitable (for)
amîcus, -a, -um, friendly (to)
inimicus, -a, -um, hostile (to)
grâtus, -a, -um, pleasing (to), agreeable (to)
molestus, -a, -um, annoying (to), troublesome (to)
fînitimus, -a, -um, neighboring (to)
proximus, -a, -um, nearest, next (to)

145. EXERCISES

I. 1. Rômânî terram idôneam agrî cultûrae habent. 2. Gallî côpiîs Rômânîs inimîcî erant. 3. Cui dea Lâtôna amîca non erat? 4. Dea Lâtôna superbae rêgînae amîca nôn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mârce, erit armâtîs virîs grâtus. 6. Quid erat molestum populîs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallîs erant molesta populîs Italiae. 8. Agrî Germânôrum fluviô Rhênô fînitimî erant. 9. Rômânî ad silvam oppidô proximam castra movêbant. 10. Nôn sôlum fôrma sed etiam superbia rêgînae erat magna. 11. Mox rêgîna pulchra erit aegra trîstitiâ. 12. Cûr erat Niobê, rêgîna Thêbânôrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobê multîs fîliîs et fîliâbus.

II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field¹ suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

1. Why not the dative?

146. Cornelia and her Jewels

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apud antîquâs dominâs, Cornêlia, Âfricânî fîlia, erat² maximê clâra. Fîliî eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gâius Gracchus. Iî puerî cum Cornêliâ in oppidô Rômâ, clârô Italiae oppidô, habitâbant. Ibi eôs cûrâbat Cornêlia et ibi magnô cum studiô eôs docêbat. Bona fêmina erat Cornêlia et bonam disciplînam maximê amâbat.

Note. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words.

2. Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. § 134.)

LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGÔ AND AUDIÔ

147. As we learned in § 126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in -e, and of the fourth in -î. The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows:

1. The personal endings are the same as before.

2. The final short -e- of the stem rege- combines with the -ô in the first person, becomes -u- in the third person plural, and becomes -i- elsewhere. The inflection is like that of erô, the future of sum.

3. In audiô the personal endings are added regularly to the stem audî-. In the third person plural -u- is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as audi-u-nt. Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final -t just as in amô and moneô. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

Note that -i- is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. § 12. 1, 2.)

148. Like regô and audiô inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs:

149. EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis agit? Cûr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dûcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mûniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venîmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dûcitis? Quid dîcunt? 5. Mûnîmus, venîtis, dîcit. 6. Agimus, reperîtis, mûnîs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dîcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (sing. and plur.). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (all plur.).

150. Cornelia and her Jewels (Concluded)

Proximum domicîliô Cornêliae erat pulchrae Campânae domicilium. Campâna erat superba nôn sôlum fôrmâ suâ sed maximê ôrnâmentîs suîs. Ea¹ laudâbat semper. "Habêsne tû ûlla ornâmenta, Cornêlia?" inquit. "Ubi sunt tua ôrnâmenta?" Deinde Cornêlia fîliôs suôs Tiberium et Gâium vocat. "Puerî meî," inquit, "sunt mea ôrnâmenta. Nam bonî lîberî sunt semper bonae fêminae ôrnâmenta maximê clâra."

Note. The only new words here are Campâna, semper, and tû.

1. Ea, accusative plural neuter.

[Illustration: Cornelia with her sons
Caption: "PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA"]

LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGÔ AND AUDIÔ · THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

151. PARADIGMS

1. The tense sign is -bâ-, as in the first two conjugations.

2. Observe that the final -e- of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign -bâ-. This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. monêbam and regêbam).

3. In the fourth conjugation -ê- is inserted between the stem and the tense sign -bâ- (audi-ê-ba-m).

4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in § 148.

152. EXERCISES

I. 1. Agêbat, veniêbat, mittêbat, dûcêbant. 2. Agêbant, mittêbant, dûcêbas, mûniêbant. 3. Mittêbâmus, dûcêbâtis, dîcêbant. 4. Mûniêbâmus, veniêbâtis, dîcêbâs. 5. Mittêbâs, veniêbâmus, reperiêbat. 6. Reperiêbâs, veniêbâs, audiêbâtis. 7. Agêbâmus, reperiêbâtis, mûniêbat. 8. Agêbâtis, dîcêbam, mûniêbam.

II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (sing. and plur.), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (sing. and plur.), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (sing. and plur.), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (sing. and plur.), we were coming, they were ruling.

153. The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs. We learned above (§ 20. a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an intransitive verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§ 45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. § 43.)

crêdô, crêdere, believe (give belief to)
faveô, favêre, favor (show favor to)
noceô, nocêre, injure (do harm to)
pâreô, pârêre, obey (give obedience to)
persuâdeô, persuâdêre, persuade (offer persuasion to)
resistô, resistere, resist (offer resistance to)
studeô, studêre, be eager for (give attention to)

154. Rule. Dative with Intransitive Verbs. The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs crêdô, faveô, noceô, pâreô, persuâdeô, resistô, studeô, and others of like meaning.

155. EXERCISE

1. Crêdisne verbîs sociôrum? Multî verbîs eôrum nôn crêdunt. 2. Meî fînitimî cônsiliô tuô nôn favêbunt, quod bellô student. 3. Tiberius et Gâius disciplînae dûrae nôn resistêbant et Cornêliae pârêbant. 4. Dea erat inimîca septem fîliâbus rêgînae. 5. Dûra poena et perpetua trîstitia rêgînae nôn persuâdêbunt. 6. Nûper ea resistêbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lâtônae. 7. Mox sagittae volâbunt et lîberîs miserîs nocêbunt.

LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGÔ AND AUDIÔ

156. In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using -bi-, as in the first and second conjugations, we use -â-¹ in the first person singular and -ê- in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final -e- of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final -î- of the stem is retained.²

1. The -â- is shortened before -m final, and -ê- before -t final and before -nt. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

2. The -î- is, of course, shortened, being before another vowel. (Cf. § 12. 1.)

157. PARADIGMS

1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in § 148.

158. EXERCISES

I. 1. Dîcet, dûcêtis, mûniêmus. 2. Dîcent, dîcêtis, mittêmus. 3. Mûnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dûcet, mittês, veniet, aget. 5. Mûniet, reperiêtis, agêmus. 6. Mittam, veniêmus, regent. 7. Audiêtis, veniês, reperiês. 8. Reperiet, agam, dûcêmus, mittet. 9. Vidêbitis, sedêbô, vocâbimus.

II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (sing. and plur.), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6. Who³ will believe the story? I4 shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle.

3. Remember that quis, who, is singular in number.

4. Express by ego, because it is emphatic.

LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN -IÔ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

159. There are a few common verbs ending in -iô which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. § 126.) Compare

audiô, audî´re (hear), fourth conjugation
capiô, ca´pere (take), third conjugation

160. The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of capiô are inflected as follows:

1. Observe that capiô and the other -iô verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation two vowels occur in succession. (Cf. capiô, audiô; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

2. Like capiô, inflect

faciô, facere, make, do
fugiô, fugere, flee
iaciô, iacere, hurl
rapiô, rapere, seize

161. The Imperative Mood. The imperative mood expresses a command; as, come! send! The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding -te to the singular.

1. In the third conjugation the final -e- of the stem becomes -i- in the plural.

2. The verbs dîcô, say; dûcô, lead; and faciô, make, have the irregular forms dîc, dûc, and fac in the singular.

3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of veniô, dûcô, vocô, doceô, laudô, dîcô, sedeô, agô, faciô, mûniô, mittô, rapiô.

162. EXERCISES

I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciêbat. 2. Dêlê, nûntiâte, fugiunt. 3. Venîte, dîc, faciêtis. 4. Dûcite, iaciam, fugiêbant. 5. Fac, iaciêbâmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedête, reperî, docête. 7. Fugiêmus, iacient, rapiês. 8. Reperient, rapiêbâtis, nocent. 9. Favête, resistê, pârêbitis.

10. Volâ ad multâs terrâs et dâ auxilium. 11. Ego têla mea capiam et multâs ferâs dêlêbô. 12. Quis fâbulae tuae crêdet? 13. Este bonî, puerî, et audîte verba grâta magistrî.

II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.¹ 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell² the famous story to your children.

1. Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. § 99. II. 3.)

2. Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as in English.

Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§ 510-512

LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE · PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF AMÔ AND MONEÔ

163. The Voices. Thus far the verb forms have been in the active voice; that is, they have represented the subject as performing an action; as,

The lion——> killed——> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the passive voice when it represents its subject as receiving an action; as,

The lion <—— was killed <—— by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

164. Passive Personal Endings. In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows:

a. Observe that the letter -r appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the passive sign.

165. PARADIGMS

1. In the present the personal ending of the first person singular is -or.

1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

2. In the future the tense sign -bi- appears as -bo- in the first person, -be- in the second, singular number, and as -bu- in the third person plural.

3. Inflect laudô, necô, portô, moveô, dêleô, iubeô, in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

166. Intransitive verbs, such as mâtûrô, I hasten; habitô, I dwell, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

167. EXERCISES

I. 1. Laudâris or laudâre, laudâs, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidêminî, vidêtis. 3. Vocâbat, vocâbâtur, dêlêbitis, dêlêbiminî. 4. Parâbâtur, parâbat, cûrâs, cûrâris or cûrâre. 5. Portâbantur, portâbant, vidêbimur, vidêbimus. 6. Iubêris or iubêre, iubês, laudâbâris or laudâbâre, laudâbâs. 7. Movêberis or movêbere, movêbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dêlentur, dêlent, parâbâmur, parâbâmus.

II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

[Illustration: Perseus saves Andromeda
Caption: PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT]

168. Per´seus and Androm´eda

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Perseus fîlius erat Iovis,² maximî³ deôrum. Dê eô multâs fabulâs nârrant poêtae. Eî favent deî, eî magica arma et âlâs dant. Eîs têlîs armâtus et âlîs frêtus ad multâs terrâs volâbat et mônstra saeva dêlêbat et miserîs înfîrmîsque auxilium dabat. Aethiopia est terra Âfricae. Eam terram Cêpheus⁵ regêbat. Eî⁶ Neptûnus, maximus aquârum deus, erat îrâtus et mittit⁷ mônstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mônstrum nôn sôlum lâtîs pulchrîsque Aethiopiae agrîs nocêbat sed etiam domicilia agricolârum dêlêbat, et multôs virôs, fêminâs, lîberôsque necâbat. Populus ex agrîs fugiêbat et oppida mûrîs validîs mûniêbat. Tum Cêpheus magnâ trîstitiâ commôtus ad Iovis ôrâculum properat et ita dîcit: "Amîcî meî necantur; agrî meî vâstantur. Audî verba mea, Iuppiter. Dâ miserîs auxilium. Age mônstrum saevum ex patriâ."

2. Iovis, the genitive of Iuppiter.

3. Used substantively, the greatest. So below, l. 4, miserîs and înfîrmîs are used substantively.

4. Pronounce in two syllables, Ce´pheus.

5. Eî, at him, dative with îrâtus.

6. The present is often used, as in English, in speaking of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and exciting.

LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF REGÔ AND AUDIÔ

169. Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of regô and audiô, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§ 490, 491).

a. Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§ 164) are added instead of the active ones.

b. Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final -e- of the stem is not changed to -i-, as it is in the active. We therefore have re´geris or re´gere, not re´giris, re´gire.

c. Inflect agô, dîcô, dûcô, mûniô, reperiô, in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

170. EXERCISES

I. 1. Agêbat, agêbâtur, mittêbat, mittêbâtur, dûcêbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mûniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dûcêre, dûcere. 4. Dîcêmur, dîcimus, dîcêmus, dîcimur, mûniêbaminî. 5. Dûcitur, dûciminî, reperîmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agêbâmus, agêbâmur, reperîris, reperiêminî. 7. Mûnîminî, veniêbam, dûcêbar, dîcêtur. 8. Mittiminî, mittitis, mittêris, mitteris, agêbâminî. 9. Dîcitur, dîcit, mûniuntur, reperient, audientur.

II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (sing. and plur.). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (sing. and plur.). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (sing. and plur.).

171. Perseus and Andromeda (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Tum ôrâculum ita respondet: "Mala est fortûna tua. Neptûnus, magnus aquârum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimîcus, eâs poenâs mittit. Sed parâ îrâtô deô sacrum idôneum et mônstrum saevum ex patriâ tuâ agêtur. Andromeda fîlia tua est mônstrô grâta. Dâ eam mônstrô. Servâ câram patriam et vîtam populî tuî." Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amâbat Cêpheus maximê.

LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF -IÔ VERBS · PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

172. Review the active voice of capiô, present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§ 492).

a. The present forms capior and capiuntur are like audior, audiuntur, and the rest of the tense is like regor.

b. In like manner inflect the passive of iaciô and rapiô.

173. The Infinitive. The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, amâre, to love. Infinitive means unlimited. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the finite, or limited, verb forms.

174. The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows:

1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add -re to the present stem.

a. The present infinitive of sum is esse. There is no passive.

2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final -e to -î, except in the third conjugation, which changes final -ere to -î.

3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of doceô, sedeô, volô, cûrô, mittô, dûcô, mûniô, reperiô, iaciô, rapiô.

175. The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows:

1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular² and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative.

2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in § 174. 3.

1. For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from § 161.

2. That is, using the personal ending -re. A form like amâre may be either indicative, infinitive, or imperative.

176. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Tum Perseus âlîs ad terrâs multâs volabit. 2. Mônstrum saevum per aquâs properat et mox agrôs nostrôs vâstâbit. 3. Sî autem Cêpheus ad ôrâculum properâbit, ôrâculum ita respondêbit. 4. Quis têlîs Perseî superâbitur? Multa mônstra têlîs eius superâbuntur. 5. Cum cûrîs magnîs et lacrimîs multîs agricolae ex domiciliîs cârîs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vâstâbantur et multa oppida dêlêbantur. 7. Mônstrum est validum, tamen superâbitur. 8. Crêdêsne semper verbîs ôrâculî? Ego iîs non semper crêdam. 9. Pârêbitne Cêpheus ôrâculô? Verba ôrâculî eî persuâdêbunt. 10. Si nôn fugiêmus, oppidum capiêtur et oppidânî necâbuntur. 11. Vocâte puerôs et nârrâte fâbulam clâram dê mônstrô saevô.

II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.

LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM

177. You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:1

1. Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.

1. Give the synopsis of rapiô, mûniô, reperiô, doceô, videô, dîcô, agô, laudô, portô, and vary the person and number.

178. We learned in § 50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition from. This is sometimes called the separative ablative, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

179. Rule. Ablative of the Place From. The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions â or ab, dê, ê or ex.

Agricolae ex agrîs veniunt, the farmers come from the fields

a. â or ab denotes from near a place; ê or ex, out from it; and dê, down from it. This may be represented graphically as follows:

                _________
      â or ab  |         |  ê or ex
  /____________|    _____|_____________\
  \            |  Place  |             /
               |_________|
                    |
                    | dê
                    |
                    V

180. Rule. Ablative of Separation. Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning.

a. If the separation is actual and literal of one material thing from another, the preposition â or ab, ê or ex, or dê is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary.

181. Rule. Ablative of the Personal Agent. The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition â or ab.

a. In this construction the English translation of â, ab is by rather than from. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the act was performed.

Mônstrum â Perseô necâtur, the monster is being slain by (lit. from) Perseus

b. Note that the active form of the above sentence would be Perseus monstrum necat, Perseus is slaying the monster. In the passive the object of the active verb becomes the subject, and the subject of the active verb becomes the ablative of the personal agent, with â or ab.

c. Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition by. (Cf. § 100. b.) Means is a thing; the agent or actor is a person. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has â or ab. Compare

Fera sagittâ necâtur, the wild beast is killed by an arrow
Fera â Diânâ necâtur, the wild beast is killed by Diana

Sagittâ, in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; â Diânâ, in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

182. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Viri inopiâ cibî dêfessî ab eô locô discêdent. 2. Gerinânî castrîs Rômânîs adpropinquâbant, tamen lêgâtus côpiâs â proeliô continêbat. 3. Multa Gallôrum oppida ab Rômanîs capientur. 4. Tum Rômânî tôtum populum eôrum oppidôrum gladiîs pîlîsque interficient. 5. Oppidânî Rômânîs resistent, sed defessî longô proelîo fugient. 6. Multî ex Galliâ fugiêbant et in Germânôrum vicîs habitâbant. 7. Miserî nautae vulnerantur ab inimîcîs² saevîs et cibô egent. 8. Discêdite et date virîs frûmentum et côpiam vînî. 9. Côpiae nostrae â proeliô continêbantur ab Sextô lêgatô. 10. Id oppidum ab prôvinciâ Rômânâ longê aberat.

II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness.

2. inimîcîs, here used as a noun. See vocabulary.

LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF SUM

183. Principal Parts. There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the principal parts.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as go, went, gone; see, saw, seen, etc.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the first person singular of the present indicative, the present infinitive, the first person singular of the perfect indicative, and the perfect passive participle.

184. Conjugation Stems. From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the present stem, which is found from the present infinitive (cf. § 126. a). The other two stems are the perfect stem and the participial stem.

185. The Perfect Stem. The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be found by dropping -î from the first person singular of the perfect, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses:

The Perfect Active Indicative
The Pluperfect Active Indicative (English Past Perfect)
The Future Perfect Active Indicative

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively.

186. The Endings of the Perfect. The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows:

187. Inflection of sum in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative:

1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding eram, the imperfect of sum, to the perfect stem. The tense sign is -erâ-.

3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding erô, the future of sum, to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in -erint, not in -erunt. The tense sign is -eri-.

4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

188. DIALOGUE

The Boys Titus, Marcus, and Quintus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quînte?
T. Ego in meô lûdô fuî et Quîntus in suô lûdô fuit. Bonî puerî fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vîcô hodiê?
M. Fuit. Nûper per agrôs proximôs fluviô properâbat. Ibi is et Cornêlius habent nâvigium.
T. Nâvigium dîcis? Aliî¹ nârrâ eam fâbulam!
M. Vêrô (Yes, truly), pulchrum et novum nâvigium!
Q. Cuius pecûniâ² Sextus et Cornêlius id nâvigium parant? Quis iîs pecûniam dat?
M. Amîcî Cornêlî multum habent aurum et puer pecûniâ nôn eget.
T. Quô puerî nâvigâbunt? Nâvigâbuntne longê â terrâ?
M. Dubia sunt cônsilia eôrum. Sed hodiê, crêdô, sî ventus erit idôneus, ad maximam însulam nâvigâbunt. Iam anteâ ibi fuêrunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerî magnô in perîculô erant.
Q. Aqua ventô commôta est inimîca nautîs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nâvigia rapit, agit, dêletque. Iî puerî, sî nôn fuerint maximê attentî, îrâtâ aquâ et validô ventô superâbuntur et ita interficientur.

1. Dative case. (Cf. § 109.)

2. Ablative of means.

189. EXERCISE

1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There³ will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.⁴

3. The expletive there is not expressed, but the verb will precede the subject, as in English.

4. This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to agree with we.

LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

190. Meanings of the Perfect. The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with have, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, I have finished my work. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the perfect definite.

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened sometime in the past; as, I finished my work. As no definite time is specified, this is called the perfect indefinite. It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense.

a. Note carefully the difference between the following tenses:

When telling a story the Latin uses the perfect indefinite to mark the different forward steps of the narrative, and the imperfect to describe situations and circumstances that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

"Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home."

191. Inflection of the Perfect. We learned in § 186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows:

1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly.

2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding -vî to the present stem. Like amâvî inflect parâvî, vocâvî, cûrâvî, laudâvî.

3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.

192. Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:

193. Perseus and Andromeda (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cêpheus, adversâ fortûnâ maximê commôtus, discessit et multîs cum lacrimîs populô Aethiopiae verba ôrâculî nârrâvit. Fâta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, â tôtô populô dêplôrâbantur, tamen nûllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cêpheus cum plênô trîstitiae animô câram suam fîliam ex oppidî portâ ad aquam dûxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dûra revînxit. Tum amîcî puellae miserae longê discessêrunt et diû mônstrum saevum exspectâvêrunt.

Tum forte Perseus, âlîs frêtus, super Aethiopiam volâbat. Vîdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimâs, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dêscendit. Tum Cêpheus eî tôtâs cûrâs nârrâvit et ita dîxit: "Pârêbô verbîs ôrâculî, et prô patriâ fîliam meam dabô; sed sî id mônstrum interficiês et Andromedam servâbis, tibi (to you) eam dabô."

LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE · PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

194.

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in § 187. 2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of dô, portô, dêleô, moveô, habeô, dîcô, discêdô, faciô, veniô, mûniô.

195. The Perfect Active Infinitive. The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem.

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of dô, portô, dêleô, moveô, habeô, dîcô, discêdô, faciô, veniô, mûniô.

196. EXERCISES

I. 1. Habuistî, môvêrunt, miserant. 2. Vîdit, dîxeris, dûxisse. 3. Mîsistis, pâruêrunt, discesserâmus. 4. Mûnîvit, dederam, mîserô. 5. Habuerimus, dêlêvî, pâruit, fuisse. 6. Dederâs, mûnîveritis, vênerâtis, mîsisse. 7. Vênerâs, fêcisse, dederâtis, portâveris.

8. Quem verba ôrâculî môverant? Populum verba ôrâculî môverant. 9. Cui Cêpheus verba ôrâculî nârrâverit? Perseô Cêpheus verba ôrâculî nârrâverit. 10. Amîcî ab Andromedâ discesserint. 11. Mônstrum saevum domicilia multa dêlêverat. 12. Ubi mônstrum vîdistis? Id in aquâ vîdimus. 13. Quid mônstrum faciet? Mônstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (sing. and plur.). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (sing. and plur.). 6. I have given, you had moved (sing. and plur.), we had said. 7. You will have made (sing. and plur.), they will have led, to have given.

8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from¹ the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey² the oracle³? He did.

1. ex. What would ab mean?

2. Did ... obey, perfect tense.

3. What case?

LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

197. A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation:

198. The synopsis of the active voice of amô, as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows:

Principal Parts amô, amâre, amâvî

1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of parô, dô, laudô, dêleô, habeô, moveô, pâreô, videô, dîcô, discêdô, dûcô, mittô, capiô, muniô, veniô.1

1. Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.

199. Learn the following principal parts:2